Environmental Noise and Management: Overview from Past to Present

SELMA KURRA graduated as an architect-engineer with a PhD in environmental acoustics. She was formerly a Professor and had a 30 year career in the engineering departments of the Technical University of Istanbul and Bahcesehir University, giving lectures on environmental noise and building acoustics. She has also conducted noise surveys and research in the USA and Japan, and published papers, book chapters and reports. She participated in the development of the National Regulations regarding noise control and building protection. Professor Kurra is a member of IOA and IIAV and a founding member and former president of the Turkish Acoustical Society where she has been organizing the certification programs. She takes part in several ISO working groups on noise and also the Mirror Committee of the Turkish Standards Institute. She is currently a consultant for dBKES Engineering Ltd in Turkey and Hawk Technologies in UAE.

About the Author xii List of Figures xiii List of Tables xxxv Series Preface xxxvii Acknowledgments xxxviii Introduction xxxix 1 Acoustics and Noise Fundamentals 1 1.1 Acoustics and Brief History: Pioneers and Subsequent Researchers 1 1.2 Fundamentals of Sound 14 1.2.1 Sound Waves 23 1.2.2 Basic Units and Relations 30 1.3 Sound Sources 51 1.3.1 Source Types and Sound Powers 52 1.3.2 Directionality Characteristics of Sources 55 1.3.3 Wave Propagation and Sound Pressures in Relation to Source Type 59 1.3.4 Acoustic Fields 72 1.4 Sound Propagation and Disturbances 74 1.4.1 Sound Reflection 74 1.4.2 Sound Scattering (Diffusion) 80 1.4.3 Sound Absorption 81 1.4.4 Sound Transmission into Solid Media 84 1.4.5 Sound Refraction 86 1.4.6 Sound Diffraction 89 1.5 Conclusion 91 References 92 Further Reading 93 2 Noise 94 2.1 Definition and Concepts 94 2.2 Spectral Characteristics of Noise 95 2.2.1 Filters in Frequency Analysis 97 2.2.2 Fourier Analysis 98 2.2.3 Test Signals 100 2.2.4 Frequency Weighting Networks 102 2.3 Spatial Variation of Noise 104 2.3.1 The Distance Effect 105 2.3.2 Effect of Air Absorption 106 2.3.3 Meteorological Factors 109 2.3.4 The Ground Effect 117 2.3.5 Effects of Forests and Vegetation 122 2.3.6 Effect of Barriers 124 2.3.7 Vertical Surfaces 137 2.3.8 Total Effect of the Physical Environmental Factors 137 2.4 Temporal Variation of Noise 139 2.5 Noise Metrics and Descriptors 141 2.5.1 Basic Noise Units 142 2.5.2 Noise Descriptors 145 2.6 Conclusion 148 Appendix 2.A 149 2.A.1 Barrier Design, Constructions, and Samples 149 2.A.2 Overview of the Design Principles of Noise Barriers 150 2.A.3 Noise Barriers (Screens) for Other Sources 161 References 164 3 Environmental Noise Sources 171 3.1 Introduction to Environmental Noise Sources 171 3.1.1 Outdoor Noise Sources 172 3.1.2 Indoor Noise Sources 172 3.2 Transportation Noise Sources 174 3.2.1 Road Traffic Noise 175 3.2.2 Noise from Railways 193 3.2.3 Aircraft and Airport Noise 206 3.2.4 Waterway Traffic Noise 218 3.3 Industrial and Mechanical Noise Sources 227 3.3.1 Noise Emission from Single Machines and Installations 227 3.3.2 Noise Emission from Industrial Premises 230 3.4 Wind Farm Noise 232 3.4.1 Emission of Noise from Wind Turbines 233 3.4.2 Noise Emission of Wind Farms in Relation to the Environment 234 3.5 Construction Noise 235 3.5.1 Noise Emissions from Construction Equipment and Operations 235 3.5.2 Noise Emission of Construction Sites 239 3.6 Entertainment Noise 243 3.6.1 Noise Emission from Sound Amplification Systems 244 3.6.2 Noise Emission from Entertainment Premises 245 3.7 Shooting Noise 247 3.7.1 Noise Emission of Firing Weapons 247 3.7.2 Noise Emission of Shooting Ranges 248 3.8 Other Public Noise Sources 248 3.9 Noise Sources in Buildings 251 3.9.1 Noise Emission of Individual Sources in Buildings 252 3.9.2 Noise Emission of Specific Buildings (e.g. an Industrial Building) 252 3.10 Conclusion 253 References 253 4 Prediction Models for Environmental Noises 260 4.1 Development of Acoustic Modeling 260 4.1.1 Analytical Models 261 4.1.2 Empirical Models 261 4.1.3 Numerical Methods with Advanced Computer Techniques 262 4.2 Prediction Models for Road Traffic Noise 264 4.2.1 Development of the Models 264 4.2.2 The NMPB Method 283 4.2.3 The Harmonoise Model 287 4.2.4 The Cnossos-EU Traffic Noise Model 288 4.3 Prediction Models for Railway Noise 289 4.3.1 Development of the Models 289 4.3.2 Analytical Models 290 4.3.3 The RMRS Model 296 4.3.4 The Cnossos-EU Railway Noise Model 299 4.4 Prediction Models for Aircraft Noise 300 4.4.1 Development of the Models 300 4.4.2 G